Author: Kritika mishra

Database Management System Typically database management system is considered as an electronically and computerized record keeping system. However, DBMS is a collection of program, which are used to define, create and maintain database. Basically, DBMS is a general purpose software package whose overall purpose software package whose overall purpose is to create and maintain information and to make information available on demand. There are many functions of general purpose DBMS software but the main function are (I) Defining the Structure of Database It involves defining table, fields and their data types, constraints for data to be stored in the database,…

Introduction to Database Introduction to Database: A database is a collection of related data that must be stored in an efficient and compact manner. The word “efficient” means that stored data can be accessed very easily and quickly that must be efficient. Similarly, the word “compact” means that the stored data takes up as little space as possible. A database holds related data as well as a description of data. For this reason, a database is also defined as a self-describing collection of integrated records. The description of stored data is known as the system catalog or data dictionary or…

Data Processing Data Processing is the process to convert data into useful information. For this purpose, different operations may be performed on data for getting result.Therefore, data processing is defined as: “A sequence of operations on data to convert it into  information” The important operation that can be performed on data are Arithmetic and Logic Operation Classification of data Arranging of data into specific order Data Processing Methods: There are three methods for data processing Manual Processing of Data Mechanical Processing of Data Electronic Processing of Data Manual Processing of Data: In this type of processing, data is processed…

Define Switching in Networking Define Switching in Networking: From the point of view, an ordinary telephone operator, a telephone system is divided into two main parts: Outside Plant (local loops and trunks because they are physically located outside the switch rooms). Inside Plant (switches located inside the exchange points). Currently, the network uses two different switching methods: Circuit Switching Packet Switching A traditional telephone system is based on circuit switching, but packet switching is beginning to risk the development of voice over IP technology. Circuit Switching Define Switching in Networking with the circuit switching. Conceptually, when you or your computer…

Trunks and Multiplexing Trunks and Multiplexing: The highways of the telephone network are not only much faster than local loops but are distinguished by two other aspects. The heart of the telephone network carries digital and non-analog information. It’s the rhythm, not the voice. This requires scanning in the end office for transmission over long-distance lines. Long-distance lines make thousands, if not millions, of calls at the same time. This exchange in trunks and multiplexing is important for achieving economies of scale, as the installation and maintenance of a high-capacity backbone cost essentially the same amount as the low-capacity mainline…

Docker Tutorial For Beginners Docker Tutorial for Beginners – Docker Hub is a service for finding and sharing container images with your team, provided by Docker. Here are some steps for docker beginers. Step 1: Sign up for Docker Hub To sign up start by creating an account. Step 2: Create your first repository To create a repository: Sign in to the Docker Hub On the Docker Hub welcome page, Click on Create Repository: Name the repository ** /my-first-repo** as shown in below figure. Select **Private** option: You’ve created your first repository. You should see: Step 3: Download and install Docker Desktop To build…

The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL, and Fiber THE LOCAL LOOP: MODEMS, ADSL, AND FIBER – It is time to start our detailed study of the operation of the telephone system. Let’s start with the part that most people are familiar with: a local two-wire loop that comes from the phone desk and offices. The local loop is often called the “last mile”, although it can be several kilometers long. It has been carrying analog information for over 100 years and will likely continue to do so for many years due to the high cost of digital conversion. Much effort has…

Structure Of The Telephone System Structure Of The Telephone System: Shortly after Alexander Graham Bell patented the phone in 1876 (just hours before its competitor, Elisha Gray), his new invention became indispensable. The initial market was the sale of handsets in pairs. It was up to the customer to connect a single cable between them. If the owner of the phone wanted to speak with other owners of the phone, separate cables had to be connected to all the homes. During the year, the city was covered with cables that passed over homes and trees in wild confusion. Once it…

The Public Switched Telephone Network Public Switched Telephone Network: When two computers in a company or organization next to each other need to exchange data, it is often easier to connect one cable to another. Local networks work this way. However, when distances are large or many computers or cables have to cross a public road or another public right of way, the cost of laying private cables is often prohibitive. These devices, including the public, switched telephone network (PSTN), were generally designed many years ago for a different purpose: to transmit the human voice in a more or less…

Docker Hub Docker Hub: Docker is a newly discovered technology that allows development teams to build, manage, and secure apps anywhere. Goto Docker Hub Docker is a tool intended to make it simpler to create, convey, and run applications by utilizing containers. Containers enable a developer to bundle up/package up an application with the majority of the parts it needs, for example, libraries and other dependencies, and ship it all out as one bundle/package. The Docker daemon is a service that keeps running on your host working operating system. It presently just keeps running on Linux since it relies upon…

Operators in C# Operators in C#: A symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical and logical operations is called an operator. C# has a rich collection of operators. C# has the following types of operators. Arithmetic Operators Relational Operators Logical Operators Assignment Operators Bitwise Operators Operators We will explain these operators one by one. Arithmetic Operators in C# The table given below shows all the Arithmetical Operators supported by C#. For example, we have two variables x=10 and y=2 then; Operators Category Description Example  + Binary Perform addition of  operands x+y =12 – Binary Perform subtraction of the…

Digital Modulation and Multiplexing Cables and wireless channels transmit analog signals such as voltage, light intensity or loudness in continuous mode. The conversion process between the bits and the signals that represent them is called digital modulation. Direct conversion bits in the signal, called baseband transmission, in which the signal occupies frequencies from zero to a maximum, which depend on the signal transmission rate. This is common for cables. Regulates the amplitude, phase, or frequency of the carrier signal to transmit bits, which is called bandwidth transmission, in which the signal occupies a frequency band around the frequency of the…

Communication Satellites Communication satellites have interesting properties that make them interesting for many applications. In its simplest form, a communication satellite can be seen as a large microwave transponder in the sky. It contains several transponders, each listening to one part of the spectrum, amplifying the incoming signal and then transmitting it to another frequency to avoid interference with the input signal. This mode of operation is called a bent pipe. Digital processing can be added to separately control or redirect data streams in a common range, or digital information can even be received by satellite and retransmitted. Thus, the…

Wireless/Unguided Transmission Media Unguided Transmission Media – a Wireless transmission is a form of unmanaged environment or media. Wireless communication does not involve physical communication between two or more devices and performs wireless communication. The wireless signals propagate through the air and are received and interpreted by the corresponding antennas. When the antenna is connected to an electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device, it converts the digital data into wireless signals and propagates in its frequency range. The receiver at the other end receives these signals and converts them back to digital data. A small part of the…

Guided Transmission Media Guided Transmission Media – The role of the physical layer is to transfer bits from one computer to another through the channel. Different physical media can be used for the actual transfer. Each of them has its place in terms of throughput, time, cost and ease of installation and maintenance. Operators are grouped roughly in managed environments, such as copper and fiber optic cables, and in unmanaged environments, such as global wireless networks, satellites, and live lasers. Magnetic Media One of the most common ways of transferring data from one computer to another is by writing it…

The Physical Layer The physical layer defines the electrical, temporal, and other interfaces through which bits are sent as signals via channels. The physical layer is the base on which the network is built. The properties of different types of physical channels determine performance (for example, performance, delay, and error rates). There are three examples of communication systems used in practice for large computer networks (WAN): A (fixed) telephone system, A mobile telephone system A cable television system The information can be transmitted via cables that modify certain physical properties, such as current or voltage. By presenting the value of…

Network Performance Parameters Network performance refers to the quality of service of the network from the customer’s point of view. There are many different ways to measure the performance of a network because each network is different in nature and design. Performance can also be modeled and modeled instead of measured; An example of this is the use of state transition diagrams to simulate the performance of a queue or use a network simulator. The following measures are often considered important: Bandwidth Throughput Latency Jitter Error Rate Bandwidth In-Network Performance Metrics The bandwidth, usually measured in bits per second, is…

The TCP/IP Reference Model The TCP/IP reference model is a set of four communication protocols. It was developed by the Department of Defense in the 1960s and is named after the two main protocols used in the model, namely TCP and IP. The Ministry of Defense wanted the connections to remain intact as long as the source and target machines were running, even though some of the intermediate transmission lines or machines were suddenly down. Besides, since applications with different requirements were considered, from file transfer to real-time voice transmission, a flexible architecture was required. The Link Layer In The…

The OSI Reference Model The OSI model is shown in the following figure. This model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) in the first step of the international standardization of protocols, different levels are used. The model is called the ISO, OSI Reference Model (Open Systems Interconnection) because it deals with connecting open systems—that is, systems that are open for communication with other systems. We will simply call this the OSI model for short. The OSI model has seven levels of layers. The principles that have been applied to achieve the seven levels can…

Network Software The first computer networks were developed using computer hardware as the main problem and reconsideration of the software. This strategy no longer works. The network software is now very structured. 1.1  Protocol Hierarchies In-Network Software, To reduce the complexity of the network design, most networks are organized into a set of layers or levels, each built on one of the following. The number of layers, the name of each layer, the content of each layer and the functions of each layer differ according to the networks. The objective of each level is to offer certain services at higher…